Fagus sylvatica

Classification System: APG IV

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Plantae
Cladus: Angiosperms
Cladus: Eudicots
Cladus: Core eudicots
Cladus: Rosids
Cladus: Eurosids I
Ordo: Fagales

Familia: Fagaceae
Genus: Fagus
Species: Fagus sylvatica
Name

Fagus sylvatica L., Sp. Pl. 2: 998 (1753).
Synonyms

Homotypic
Castanea fagus Scop., Fl. Carniol., ed. 2, 2: 242 (1772), nom. superfl.
Heterotypic
Fagus sylvatica var. albovariegata Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 107 (1770).
Fagus sylvatica var. atropunicea Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 107 (1770).
Fagus sylvatica var. luteovariegata Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 107 (1770).
Fagus sylvestris Gaertn., Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 182 (1788).
Fagus sylvatica var. purpurea Aiton, Hortus Kew. 3: 362 (1789).
Fagus sylvatica var. vulgaris Aiton, Hortus Kew. 3: 362 (1789).
Fagus echinata Gilib., Exerc. Phyt. 2: 396 (1792), opus utique oppr.
Fagus sylvatica var. laciniata Vignet in F.W.Schmidt, Samml. Phys.-Oekon. Aufsätze 1: 173 (1795).
Fagus sylvatica var. quercoides Pers., Trans. Linn. Soc. London 5: 233 (1801).
Fagus purpurea (Aiton) Dum.Cours., Bot. Cult., ed. 2, 1: 282 (1811).
Fagus sylvatica var. aenea Dum.Cours., Bot. Cult., ed. 2, 6: 415 (1811).
Fagus sylvatica var. asplenifolia Dum.Cours., Bot. Cult., ed. 2, 6: 415 (1811).
Fagus sylvatica var. cristata Dum.Cours., Bot. Cult., ed. 2, 6: 415 (1811).
Fagus sylvatica var. pendula Dum.Cours., Bot. Cult., ed. 2, 6: 415 (1811).
Fagus comptoniifolia Desf., Tabl. École Bot., ed. 2: 269 (1815), nom. nud.
Fagus sylvatica var. coriacea Wallr., Sched. Crit.: 494 (1822).
Fagus sylvatica pendula (Dum.Cours.) Lodd., Cat. 13: 23 (1823).
Fagus sylvatica var. heterophylla Loudon, Encycl. Pl.: 1692 (1855).
Fagus sylvatica var. tortuosa Pépin, Rev. Hort. (Paris) 1861: 84 (1861).
Fagus cuprea Hurter ex A.DC. in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 16(2): 119 (1864), pro syn.
Fagus laciniata A.DC. in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 16(2): 119 (1864), pro syn.
Fagus sylvatica var. colorata A.DC. in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 16(2): 119 (1864).
Fagus sylvatica var. latifolia G.Kirchn. in E.A.Petzold & G.Kirchner, Arbor. Muscav.: 662 (1864).
Fagus sylvatica f. salicifolia Dippel, Prodr. 16(2): 119 (1864).
Fagus sylvatica var. purpureopendula H.Jaeger, Ziergehölze Gärt. Parkanl.: 225 (1865).
Fagus sylvatica remillyensis Simon-Louis, Cat. 1868/69: ? (1868).
Fagus sylvatica f. fastigiata Simon-Louis ex K.Koch, Dendrologie 2(2): 17 (1873).
Fagus sylvatica f. tricolor Simon-Louis ex K.Koch, Dendrologie 2(2): 18 (1873).
Fagus sylvatica purpurea-pendula Van Geert, Nursery Cat. (Auguste Van Geert) 71: 125 (1874), nom. nud.
Fagus purpurea tricolor (Simon-Louis ex K.Koch) Pynaert, Nursery Cat. (Éd. Pynaert - Van Geert) 1886: 11 (1886).
Fagus sylvatica var. suntalensis Beissn. in ?.
Fagus incisa Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 51 (1891), pro syn.
Fagus sylvatica var. cochleata Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 52 (1891).
Fagus sylvatica var. foliis-striatis Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 52 (1891), not validly publ.
Fagus sylvatica var. grandidentata Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 51 (1891).
Fagus sylvatica var. pyramidalis Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 51 (1891).
Fagus sylvatica f. retroflexa Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 51 (1891).
Fagus sylvatica f. roseomarginatis Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 52 (1891).
Fagus sylvatica var. variegata Dippel, Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 52 (1891).
Fagus purpurea var. roseomarginata Cripps, Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 12: 669 (1892).
Fagus sylvatica var. zlatia Späth ex E.Goeze, Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 12: 669 (1892).
Fagus sylvatica rohanii Körb., Österr. Gartenkalend. 19: 1March (1894).
Fagus sylvatica rotundifolia Jackman, Gard. Mag. (London) 37: 339 (1894).
Fagus sylvatica f. cristata (Dum.Cours.) Schelle in L.Beissner, E.Schelle & H.Zabel, Handb. Laubholzben.: 62 (1903).
Fagus sylvatica f. pendula (Dum.Cours.) Schelle in L.Beissner, E.Schelle & H.Zabel, Handb. Laubholzben.: 61 (1903).
Fagus sylvatica f. purpurea (Aiton) Schelle in L.Beissner, E.Schelle & H.Zabel, Handb. Laubholzben.: 61 (1903).
Fagus sylvatica var. suentelensis Schelle in L.Beissner, E.Schelle & H.Zabel, Handb. Laubholzben.: 31 (1903).
Fagus sylvatica f. zlatia (Späth ex E.Goeze) Schelle in L.Beissner, E.Schelle & H.Zabel, Handb. Laubholzben.: 62 (1903).
Fagus sylvatica f. asplenifolia (Dum.Cours.) C.K.Schneid., Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 1: 153 (1904).
Fagus sylvatica f. aureovariegata C.K.Schneid., Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 1: 154 (1904).
Fagus sylvatica f. quercifolia C.K.Schneid., Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 1: 154 (1904).
Fagus sylvatica var. miltonensis A.Henry in H.J.Elwes & A.Henry, Trees Great Britain 1: 10 (1906).
Fagus sylvatica var. remillyensis (Simon-Louis) A.Henry in H.J.Elwes & A.Henry, Trees Great Britain 1: 10 (1906).
Fagus tortuosa (Dippel) F.Boden, Z. Forst- Jagdwesen 38: 103 (1906).
Fagus sylvatica f. bornyensis Simon-Louis ex Beissn., Mitt. Deutsch. Dendrol. Ges. 1910: 162 (1910).
Fagus sylvatica f. tortuosa (Pépin) Hegi, Ill. Fl. Mitt.-Eur. 3: 98 (1910).
Fagus sylvatica pendula-purpurea Graebn., Mitt. Deutsch. Dendrol. Ges. 20: 255 (1911).
Fagus sylvatica f. rohanii (Körb.) C.K.Schneid., Ill. Handb. Laubholzk. 2: 898 (1912).
Fagus cochleata (Dippel) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 70 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. albovariegata (Weston) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 71 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. atropunicea (Weston) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 70 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. laciniata (Vignet) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 69 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. luteovariegata (Weston) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 71 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. quercoides (Pers.) Aug.DC., Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 67 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. roseomarginata (Cripps) Domin, Bull. Int. Acad. Tchéque Sci., Cl. Sci. Math. Nat. Méd. 33: 71 (1932).
Fagus sylvatica f. purpureopendula (H.Jaeger) Rehder, Bibl. Cult. Trees: 114 (1949).
Fagus sylvatica f. rotundifolia (Jackman) Rehder, Bibl. Cult. Trees: 114 (1949).
Fagus sylvatica var. quercifolia (C.K.Schneid.) Geerinck, Taxonomania 7: 4 (2002).

Distribution
Native distribution areas:
References
Primary references

Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. Tomus II: 998. Reference page.

Additional references

Tutin, T.G., Akeroyd, J.R. (rev.) 1993. Fagus. Pp. 72 in Tutin, T.G., Burges, N.A., Chater, A.O., Edmondson, J.R., Heywood, V.H., Moore, D.M., Valentine, D.H., Walters, S.M. & Webb, D.A. (eds.), Flora Europaea. Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae. 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) / New York / Melbourne, xlvi + 581 pp., ISBN 0-521-41007-X. Reference page.

Links

Govaerts, R. et al. 2021. Fagus sylvatica in World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published online. Accessed: 2021 Jun 26. Reference page.
Govaerts, R. et al. 2021. Fagus sylvatica in Kew Science Plants of the World online. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published online. Accessed: 2021 Jun 26. Reference page.
International Plant Names Index. 2021. Fagus sylvatica. Published online. Accessed: Jun 26 2021.
Tropicos.org 2021. Fagus sylvatica. Missouri Botanical Garden. Published online. Accessed: 26 Jun 2021.
Hassler, M. 2021. Fagus sylvatica. World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World In: Roskovh, Y., Abucay, L., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., De Wever, A., Nieukerken, E. van, Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L., eds. 2021. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life. Published online. Accessed: 2021 Jun 26. Reference page.
Hassler, M. 2021. World Plants. Synonymic Checklist and Distribution of the World Flora. . Fagus sylvatica. Accessed: 26 Jun 2021.

IUCN: Fagus sylvatica (Least Concern)
Vernacular names
aragonés: Fabo
العربية: زان أوروبي
azərbaycanca: Meşə fıstığı
беларуская (тарашкевіца): Бук лясны
беларуская: Бук лясны
български: Обикновен бук
brezhoneg: Faou
català: Faig
corsu: Faiu
kaszëbsczi: Bùk
čeština: Buk lesní
dansk: Almindelig Bøg
Deutsch: Rot-Buche
dolnoserbski: Cerwjeny buk
Ελληνικά: Δασική οξιά
English: European Beech
Esperanto: Eŭropa fago
español: Haya
euskara: Pago arrunt
suomi: Euroopanpyökki
føroyskt: Bók
français: Hêtre commun
Gaeilge: Feá
galego: Faia
hrvatski: Bukva
hornjoserbsce: Lěsny buk
magyar: Európai bükk, közönséges bükk
italiano: Faggio
日本語: ヨーロッパブナ
Lëtzebuergesch: Routbuch
lietuvių: Paprastasis bukas
latviešu: Eiropas dižskābardis
Nederlands: Beuk
norsk nynorsk: Bøk
norsk: Bøk
occitan: Fau europèu
polski: Buk zwyczajny
português: Faia-europeia
Runa Simi: Iwrupa haya
română: Fag
русский: Бук европейский
sardu: Fau
srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски: Bukva
slovenčina: Buk lesný
slovenščina: Bukev
српски / srpski: Буква / Bukva
svenska: Bok
Türkçe: Avrupa kayını
українська: Бук лісовий
vèneto: Fagaro
中文: 欧洲山毛榉

Fagus sylvatica, the European beech or common beech is a deciduous tree belonging to the beech family Fagaceae.

Description
Copper beech in autumn
Shoot with nut cupules

Fagus sylvatica is a large tree, capable of reaching heights of up to 50 m (160 ft) tall[3] and 3 m (9.8 ft) trunk diameter, though more typically 25–35 m (82–115 ft) tall and up to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) trunk diameter. A 10-year-old sapling will stand about 4 m (13 ft) tall. It has a typical lifespan of 150–200 years, though sometimes up to 300 years. In cultivated forest stands trees are normally harvested at 80–120 years of age.[4] 30 years are needed to attain full maturity (as compared to 40 for American beech). Like most trees, its form depends on the location: in forest areas, F. sylvatica grows to over 30 m (100 ft), with branches being high up on the trunk. In open locations, it will become much shorter (typically 15–24 m (50–80 ft)) and more massive.

The leaves are alternate, simple, and entire or with a slightly crenate margin, 5–10 cm long and 3–7 cm broad, with 6–7 veins on each side of the leaf (7–10 veins in Fagus orientalis). When crenate, there is one point at each vein tip, never any points between the veins. The buds are long and slender, 15–30 mm (0.59–1.18 in) long and 2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) thick, but thicker (to 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in)) where the buds include flower buds.

The leaves of beech are often not abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called marcescence. This particularly occurs when trees are saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.

Small quantities of seeds may be produced around 10 years of age, but not a heavy crop until the tree is at least 30 years old. F. sylvatica male flowers are borne in the small catkins which are a hallmark of the Fagales order (beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnuts, hickories, birches, and hornbeams). The female flowers produce beechnuts, small triangular nuts 15–20 millimetres (0.59–0.79 in) long and 7–10 mm (0.28–0.39 in) wide at the base; there are two nuts in each cupule, maturing in the autumn 5–6 months after pollination. Flower and seed production is particularly abundant in years following a hot, sunny and dry summer, though rarely for two years in a row.
Distribution and habitat
See also: Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe
Fagus sylvatica pliocenica – Museum of Toulouse

The natural range extends from southern Sweden to northern Sicily,[5] west to France, southern England, northern Portugal, central Spain, and east to northwest Turkey, where it intergrades with the oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), which replaces it further east. In the Balkans, it shows some hybridisation with oriental beech; these hybrid trees are named Fagus × taurica Popl. [Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) Czecz.]. In the southern part of its range around the Mediterranean, it grows only in mountain forests, at 600–1,800 m (1,969–5,906 ft) altitude.

Although often regarded as native in southern England, recent evidence suggests that F. sylvatica did not arrive in England until about 4000 BC, or 2,000 years after the English Channel formed after the ice ages; it could have been an early introduction by Stone age humans, who used the nuts for food.[6] The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.[7] Localised pollen records have been recorded in the North of England from the Iron Age by Sir Harry Godwin. Changing climatic conditions may put beech populations in southern England under increased stress and while it may not be possible to maintain the current levels of beech in some sites it is thought that conditions for beech in north-west England will remain favourable or even improve. It is often planted in Britain. Similarly, the nature of Norwegian beech populations is subject to debate. If native, they would represent the northern range of the species. However, molecular genetic analyses support the hypothesis that these populations represent intentional introduction from Denmark before and during the Viking Age.[8] However, the beech in Vestfold and at Seim north of Bergen in Norway is now spreading naturally and regarded as native.[9]

Though not demanding of its soil type, the European beech has several significant requirements: a humid atmosphere (precipitation well distributed throughout the year and frequent fogs) and well-drained soil (it cannot handle excessive stagnant water). It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic, therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of clayey basin. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. In Norway's oceanic climate planted trees grow well north to Bodø, and produce seedlings and can spread naturally in Trondheim.[10] In Sweden, beech trees do not grow as far north as in Norway.[11]

A beech forest is very dark and few species of plant are able to survive there, where the sun barely reaches the ground. Young beeches prefer some shade and may grow poorly in full sunlight. In a clear-cut forest a European beech will germinate and then die of excessive dryness. Under oaks with sparse leaf cover it will quickly surpass them in height and, due to the beech's dense foliage, the oaks will die from lack of sunlight.
Ecology

The root system is shallow, even superficial, with large roots spreading out in all directions. European beech forms ectomycorrhizas with a range of fungi including many Russula species, as well as Laccaria amethystina,[12] and with the species Ramaria flavosaponaria.[13] Tomentella Pat. species and Cenococcum geophilum have been found in Danish and Spanish beech forests. These fungi are important in enhancing uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.[12]

In the woodlands of southern Britain, beech is dominant over oak and elm south of a line from about north Suffolk across to Cardigan. Oak are the dominant forest trees north of this line. One of the most beautiful European beech forests called Sonian Forest (Forêt de Soignes/Zoniënwoud) is found in the southeast of Brussels, Belgium. Beech is a dominant tree species in France and constitutes about 10% of French forests. The largest virgin forests made of beech trees are Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh (8,800 ha (22,000 acres)) in Ukraine[14] and Izvoarele Nerei (5,012 ha (12,380 acres) in one forest body) in Semenic-Cheile Carașului National Park, Romania. These habitats are the home of Europe's largest predators, (the brown bear, the grey wolf and the lynx).[15][16][17] Many trees are older than 350 years in Izvoarele Nerei[18] and even 500 years in Uholka-Shyrokyi Luh.[14]

Spring leaf budding by the European beech is triggered by a combination of day length and temperature. Bud break each year is from the middle of April to the beginning of May, often with remarkable precision (within a few days). It is more precise in the north of its range than the south, and at 600 m (2,000 ft) than at sea level.[19]

The European beech invests significantly in summer and autumn for the following spring. Conditions in summer, particularly good rainfall, determine the number of leaves included in the buds. In autumn, the tree builds the reserves that will sustain it into spring. Given good conditions, a bud can produce a shoot with ten or more leaves. The terminal bud emits a hormonal substance in the spring that halts the development of additional buds. This tendency, though very strong at the beginning of their existence, becomes weaker in older trees.

It is only after the budding that root growth of the year begins. The first roots to appear are very thin (with a diameter of less than 0.5 mm). Later, after a wave of above ground growth, thicker roots grow in a steady fashion.
Cultivation
A look down a steep gorge with European beech leading down to the ocean at Møns Klint, Denmark

European beech is a very popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens in temperate regions of the world. In North America, they are preferred for this purpose over the native F. grandifolia, which despite its tolerance of warmer climates, is slower growing, taking an average of 10 years longer to attain maturity. The town of Brookline, Massachusetts has one of the largest, if not the largest, grove of European beech trees in the United States. The 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) public park, called 'The Longwood Mall', was planted sometime before 1850 qualifying it as the oldest stand of European beeches in the United States.[20]

It is frequently kept clipped to make attractive hedges.

Since the early 19th century there have been numerous cultivars of European beech made by horticultural selection, often repeatedly; they include:

copper beech or purple beech (Fagus sylvatica purpurea)[21] – a mutation of the European beech which was first noted in 1690 in the "Possenwald" forest near the town of Sondershausen in Thuringia, Germany. It is assumed that about 99% of all copper beeches in the world are descendants of this copper beech. Its leaves are purple, in many selections turning deep spinach green by mid-summer. In the United States Charles Sprague Sargent noted the earliest appearance in a nurseryman's catalogue in 1820, but in 1859 "the finest copper beech in America... more than fifty feet high" was noted in the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., Throggs Neck, New York;[22] it must have been more than forty years old at the time.
fern-leaf beech (Fagus sylvatica Heterophylla Group) – leaves deeply serrated to thread-like
dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica Tortuosa Group) – distinctive twisted trunk and branches
weeping beech (Fagus sylvatica Pendula Group) – branches pendulous
Dawyck beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Dawyck') – fastigiate (columnar) growth – occurs in green, gold and purple forms; named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders
golden beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Zlatia') – leaves golden in spring

Cultivars

The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-[23]

F. sylvatica[24]
'Dawyck'[25]
'Dawyck Gold'[26]
'Dawyck Purple'[27]
'Pendula' (weeping beech)[28]
'Riversii'[29]
F. sylvatica var. heterophylla 'Aspleniifolia'[30]

Image gallery

'Pendula', Harlow Carr.

The famous Upside-down Tree, Hyde Park, London, an example of F. sylvatica 'pendula'.

Beech planted on a march dyke (boundary hedge) in Scotland.

Leaves of var. heterophylla 'Aspleniifolia', Belfast Botanic Garden

Old stand of beech prepared for regeneration (note the young undergrowth) in the Sonian Forest.

Fagus sylvatica wood – MHNT

Fagus sylvatica – MHNT

Seedlings

Copper beech (spring)

Fagus sylvatica

Swollen leaf bud.

Timber

The wood of the European beech is used in the manufacture of numerous objects and implements. Its fine and short grain makes it an easy wood to work with, easy to soak, dye, varnish and glue. Steaming makes the wood even easier to machine. It has an excellent finish and is resistant to compression and splitting and it is stiff when flexed. Milling is sometimes difficult due to cracking. The density of the wood is 720 kg per cubic meter.[31] It is particularly well suited for minor carpentry, particularly furniture. From chairs to parquetry (flooring) and staircases, the European beech can do almost anything other than heavy structural support, so long as it is not left outdoors. Its hardness make it ideal for making wooden mallets and workbench tops. The wood rots easily if it is not protected by a tar based on a distillate of its own bark (as used in railway sleepers).[32][33] It is better for paper pulp than many other broadleaved trees though is only sometimes used for this, the high cellulose content can also be spun into modal, which is used as a textile akin to cotton. The code for its use in Europe is fasy (from FAgus SYlvatica). Common beech is also considered one of the best firewoods for fireplaces.[34]
Detail of the tarcrust's structure
Other uses

The nuts are eaten by humans and animals.[35] Slightly toxic to humans if eaten in large quantities due to the tannins and alkaloids they contain, the nuts were nonetheless pressed to obtain an oil in 19th-century England that was used for cooking and in lamps. They were also ground to make flour, which could be eaten after the tannins were leached out by soaking.[36][37][38]

Primary Product AM 01, a smoke flavouring, is produced from Fagus sylvatica L.[39]
Pathogens

Biscogniauxia nummularia (beech tarcrust) is an ascomycete primary pathogen of beech trees, causing strip-canker and wood rot. It can be found at all times of year and is not edible.[40]
References

Barstow, M. & Beech, E. 2018. Fagus sylvatica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T62004722A62004725. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T62004722A62004725.en. Downloaded on 13 April 2021.
"Fagus sylvatica L. — The Plant List". Theplantlist.org. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
"Tall Trees". Bomeninfo.nl.
Wühlisch, G. (2008). "European beech – Fagus sylvatica" (PDF). EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2016-10-20.
Brullo, S.; Guarino, R.; Minissale, P.; Siracusa, G.; Spampinato, G. (1999). "Syntaxonomical analysis of the beech forests from Sicily". Annali di Botanica. 57: 121–132. ISSN 2239-3129. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
Harris, E. (2002) Goodbye to Beech? Farewell to Fagus? Quarterly Journal of Forestry 96 (2):97.
International foresters study Lake District's 'greener, friendlier forests' Archived 2010-01-28 at the Wayback Machine forestry.gov.uk
Myking, T.; Yakovlev, I.; Ersland, G. A. (2011). "Nuclear genetic markers indicate Danish origin of the Norwegian beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) populations established in 500–1,000 AD". Tree Genetics & Genomes. 7 (3): 587–596. doi:10.1007/s11295-010-0358-y. S2CID 27550587.
Bøk – en kulturvekst? Archived 2017-03-12 at the Wayback Machine (in Norwegian)
Eli Fremstad. "Lade i Trondheim: naturtyper, flora og grunnlag for skjøtselsplan". Ntnu.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2022-04-02.
Laurie, James; Balbi, Adriano (1842-01-01). System of Universal Geography: Founded on the Works of Malte-Brun and Balbi: Embracing a Historical Sketch of the Progress of Geographical Discovery …. A. and C. Black.
Packham, John R.; Thomas, Peter A.; Atkinson, Mark D.; Degen, Thomas (19 October 2012). "Biological Flora of the British Isles: Fagus sylvatica". Journal of Ecology. 100 (6): 1557–1608. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2012.02017.x.
Agerer, Reinhard, ed. (1987–2012). "Tables of identified ectomycorrhizae". Colour Atlas of Ectomycorrhizae. Schwäbisch Gmünd: Einhorn-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-921703-77-9. OCLC 263940450. Retrieved 19 July 2018. "Ramaria flavo-saponaria + Fagus selvatica (Raidl, Scattolin)"
Commarmot, Brigitte; Brändli, Urs-Beat; Hamor, Fedir; Lavnyy, Vasyl (2013). Inventory of the Largest Primeval Beech Forest in Europe (PDF). Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL.
Romania & Moldova. Lonely Planet. 1998-01-01. ISBN 978-0-86442-329-0.
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