Salicornia

Classification System: APG IV

Superregnum: Eukaryota
Regnum: Plantae
Cladus: Angiosperms
Cladus: Eudicots
Cladus: Core eudicots
Ordo: Caryophyllales

Familia: Amaranthaceae s.l.
Cladus: Chenopodiaceae s.str.
Subfamilia: Salicornioideae
Tribus: Salicornieae
Genus: Salicornia

Subgenera: S. subg. Afrocornia – S. subg. Amerocornia
Name

Salicornia L. Sp. Pl. 1: 3. (1753)

Lectotype (designated by L. Britton et A. Brown 1913, Ill. Fl. N.U.S. ed. 2. 2: 21.): Salicornia europaea L.

Synonyms

Sarcocornia A.J.Scott, Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 75(4): 366. (1978)
Type: Sarcocornia perennis (Miller) A.J.Scott

Note: Piirainen et al. (2017) propose to merge Sarcocornia under Salicornia, as Sarcocornia is paraphyletic in relation to Salicornia.
Overview of species

Species: S. alpini – S. ambigua – S. andina – S. arabica – S. bigelovii – S. blackiana – S. brachiata – S. capensis – S. cuscoensis – S. decumbens – S. decussata – S. depressa – S. dunensis – S. europaea – S. fruticosa – S. globosa – S. helmutii – S. hispanica – S. lagascae – S. littorea – S. magellanica – S. maritima – S. meyeriana – S. mossambicensis – S. mossiana – S. natalensis – S. neei – S. obclavata – S. pachystachya – S. pacifica – S. perennans – S. perennis – S. perrieri – S. persica – S. pillansii – S. procumbens – S. pruinosa – S. pulvinata – S. quinqueflora – S. rubra – S. senegalensis – S. tegetaria – S. terminalis – S. uniflora – S. utahensis – S. virginica – S. xerophila

Taxa of uncertain status: S. dioica – S. falcata – S. flabaultii – S. foliosa – S. frutescens – S. fruticulosa – S. leptostachya – S. macedonica – S. megastachya – S. peregrina – Salicornia persica subsp. rudshurensis - S. perspolitana – S. salsola – S. sinus-persica – S. × tashkensis

Names in synonymy: S. acetaria – S. altaica – S. amplexicaulis – S. anceps – S. annua – S. appressa – S. arbuscula – S. australasica – S. australis – S. bergii – S. bidens – S. biennis – S. blackeana – S. borealis – S. borysthenica – S. brachystachya – S. californica – S. caspica – S. cinerea – S. copiapina – S. corticosa – S. cruciata – S. deserticola – S. disarticulata – S. doeringii – S. dolichostachya – S. donaldsonii – S. drepanensis – S. duvalii – S. emericii – S. equisetifolia – S. fastigiata – S. foliacea – S. foliata – S. fragilis – S. freitagii – S. gaudichaudiana – S. glauca – S. gracillima – S. herbacea – S. heterantha – S. indica – S. intermedia – S. iranica – S. leiosperma – S. leiostachya – S. lignosa – S. longispicata – S. lutescens – S. lylei – S. macrostachya – S. mucronata – S. nitens – S. nodulosa – S. obscura – S. occidentalis – S. oliveri – S. pallasiana – S. pallasii – S. patula – S. perfoliata – S. peruviana – S. pojarkovae – S. praecox – S. prostrata – S. pusilla – S. pygmaea – S. radicans – S. ramosissima – S. robusta – S. sarmentosa – S. sempervirens – S. simonkaiana – S. simplex – S. smithiana – S. stricta – S. strictissima – S. strobilacea – S. subterminalis – S. tenuis – S. triandra – S. veneta – S. vicensis

for Sarcocornia: S. alpini – S. ambigua – S. andina – S. blackiana – S. capensis – S. carinata – S. decumbens – S. decussata – S. dunensis – S. freitagii – S. fruticosa – S. globosa – S. hispanica – S. lagascae – S. littorea – S. magellanica –S. mossambicensis – S. mossiana – S. natalensis – S. neei –S. obclavata – S. pacifica – S. perennis – S. pillansii – S. pruinosa – S. pulvinata – S. quinqueflora – S. tegetaria – S. terminalis – S. utahensis – S. xerophila

References
Primary references

Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. Tomus I: 3. Reference page.
Scott, A.J. 1978. Reinstatement and revision of Salicorniaceae J. Agardh (Caryophyllales). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 75(4): 357–374. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.1977.tb01493.x Reference page. : 366–367.

Additional references

Piirainen, M., Liebisch, O. & Kadereit, G. 2017. Phylogeny, biogeography, systematics and taxonomy of Salicornioideae (Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae) – A cosmopolitan, highly specialized hygrohalophyte lineage dating back to the Oligocene. Taxon 66(1): 109–132. DOI: 10.12705/661.6 Reference page.
Alonso, M.A., Crespo, M.B. & Freitag, H. 2017. Salicornia cuscoensis (Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae), a new species from Peru (South America). Phytotaxa 319(3): 254–262. DOI: 10.11646/phytotaxa.319.3.4 Reference page.
Kadereit, G., Mucina, L. & Freitag, H. 2006: Phylogeny of Salicornioideae (Chenopodiaceae): Diversification, Biogeography, and Evolutionary Trends in Leaf and Flower Morphology. Taxon 55(3): 617–642. DOI: 10.2307/25065639.Reference page.
Kadereit, G., Ball, P.W., Beer, S.S., Mucina, L., Sokoloff, D.D., Teege, P., Yaprak, A.E. & Freitag, H. 2007. A taxonomic nightmare comes true: phylogeny and biogeography of glassworts (Salicornia L., Chenopodiaceae). Taxon 56(4): 1143–1170. DOI: 10.2307/25065909 ResearchGate Reference page.
Kadereit, G., Piirainen, M., Lambinon, J. & Vanderpoorten, A. 2012. Cryptic taxa should have names: Reflections on the glasswort genus Salicornia (Amaranthaceae). Taxon 61(6): 1227–1239. pdf Reference page.
Steffen, S., Ball, P.W., Mucina, L. & Kadereit, G. 2015. Phylogeny, biogeography and ecological diversification of Sarcocornia (Salicornioideae, Amaranthaceae). Annals of Botany 115(3): 353–368. DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu260 PMC: 4332613 Open access. Reference page.
Ball, P.W.:
eFloras 2008. Salicornia in Flora of North America . Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
Zhu, G., Mosyakin, S.L. & Clemants, S.E.:
'eFloras 2008. Salicornia in Flora of China. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
Piirainen, M. 2009: Salicornia. – In: Uotila, P. (ed.): Chenopodiaceae. Euro+Med Plantbase - the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity.

Links

Hassler, M. 2018. Salicornia. World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World In: Roskovh, Y., Abucay, L., Orrell, T., Nicolson, D., Bailly, N., Kirk, P., Bourgoin, T., DeWalt, R.E., Decock, W., De Wever, A., Nieukerken, E. van, Zarucchi, J. & Penev, L., eds. 2018. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life. Published on the internet. Accessed: 2018 May 16. Reference page.
International Plant Names Index. 2018. Salicornia. Published online. Accessed: May 16 2018.
Tropicos.org 2016. Salicornia. Missouri Botanical Garden. Published on the internet. Accessed: 10 Jul. 2016.

Vernacular names
català: Salicorn
čeština: slanorožec
dansk: Salturt
Deutsch: Queller, Friesenkraut, Glasschmelz, Glasschmalz
English: Glasswort, Pickleweed, Marsh Samphire
فارسی: قلیا
suomi: Suolayrtit
français: Salicorne
hornjoserbsce: Selorodźenc
հայերեն: Բալախ
italiano: Salicornia
қазақша: Бұзаубассораң
Plattdüütsch: Queller
Nederlands: Zeekraal
norsk: Salturtslekta
ଓଡ଼ିଆ: ସାଲିକୋର୍ଣ୍ଣିଆ
polski: Soliród
русский: Солерос
slovenčina: slanorožec
svenska: Glasörter
українська: Солонець
中文: 盐角草

Salicornia is a genus of succulent, halophyte (salt tolerant) flowering plants in the family Amaranthaceae that grow in salt marshes, on beaches, and among mangroves. Salicornia species are native to North America, Europe, South Africa, and South Asia. Common names for the genus include glasswort, pickleweed, picklegrass, and marsh samphire; these common names are also used for some species not in Salicornia.[1] To French speakers in Atlantic Canada, they are known, colloquially, as "titines de souris" (mouse tits). The main European species is often eaten, called marsh samphire in Britain, and the main North American species is occasionally sold in grocery stores or appears on restaurant menus, usually as 'sea beans' or samphire greens or sea asparagus.

Description
Illustration of Salicornia maritima

The Salicornia species are small annual herbs. They grow prostrate to erect, their simple or branched stems are succulent, hairless, and appear to be jointed. The opposite leaves are strongly reduced to small fleshy scales with a narrow dry margin, hairless, unstalked and united at the base, thus enclosing and forming a succulent sheath around the stem, which gives it the appearance of being composed of jointed segments.[2]: 522 [3] Many species are green, but their foliage turns red in autumn. Older stems may be somewhat woody basally.

All stems terminate in spike-like apparently jointed inflorescences. Each joint consists of two opposite minute bracts with an (1-) 3-flowered cyme tightly embedded in cavities of the main axis and partly hidden by the bracts. The flowers are arranged in a triangle, both lateral flowers beneath the central flower. The hermaphrodite flowers are more or less radially symmetric, with a perianth of three fleshy tepals united nearly to the apex. There are 1-2 stamens and an ovary with two stigmas.[3]

The perianth is persistent in fruit. The fruit wall (pericarp) is membranous. The vertical seed is ellipsoid, with yellowish brown, membranous, hairy seed coat. The seed contains no perisperm (feeding tissue).[3]

Like most members of the subfamily Salicornioideae, Salicornia species use the C3 carbon fixation pathway to take in carbon dioxide from the surrounding atmosphere.[4]
Distribution and habitat
Salicornia rubra at a saline inland habitat

The species of Salicornia are widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere and in southern Africa, ranging from the subtropics to subarctic regions. There is one species present in New Zealand[5] but the genus is absent from South America and Australia.[6]

They grow in coastal salt marshes and in inland salty habitats like shores of salt lakes.[6] Salicornia species are halophytes and can generally tolerate immersion in salt water (hygrohalophytes).
Ecology

Salicornia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the Coleophora case-bearers C. atriplicis and C. salicorniae (the latter feeds exclusively on Salicornia spp.).
Phylogenetics

The genus probably originated during the Miocene in the region between the Mediterranean basin and Central Asia. Evolving from within the perennial and frost-sensitive genus Sarcocornia, the annual, strongly inbreeding and frost-tolerant Salicornia diversified during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene. By events of intercontinental dispersals, they reached southern Africa twice, North America at least three times. Two tetraploid lineages expanded rapidly, with the ability to colonize lower belts of the saltmarshes than their diploid relatives. Inbreeding and geographical isolation led to a large number of reproductive isolated species that are only weakly differentiated.[6]
Systematics
Salicornia bigelovii

The genus Salicornia was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus.[7] Salicornia europaea was selected as the type species.[8]

The taxonomic classification of this genus is extremely difficult (and has been called a "taxonomic nightmare"), determination of species seems almost impossible for non-specialists. The reasons for those difficulties are the reduced habit with weak morphological differentiation, and high phenotypic variability. As the succulent plants lose their characteristics while drying, herbarium specimens often cannot be determined with certainty and are less suited for taxonomic studies.[6]

Based on molecular genetic research (Kadereit et al. 2007, 2012),[6][9] Salicornia comprises the following species:

In Eurasia:[9]

Salicornia europaea species group, Common glasswort, with two cryptic species:
Salicornia europaea L., with three subspecies
Salicornia europaea subsp. europaea, along coasts from southern Spain to northern Scandinavia
Salicornia europaea subsp. disarticulata (Moss) Lambinon & Vanderpoorten, Atlantic coasts of Brittany, the Netherlands and southern England.
Salicornia europaea subsp. × marshallii Lambinon & Vanderpoorten, the hybrid of both former subspecies, Atlantic coasts of Brittany and the Netherlands
Salicornia perennans Willd. (Syn. Salicornia prostrata Pallas), with two subspecies:
Salicornia perennans subsp. perennans, with wide mediterranean-continental distribution, from North Africa and the Mediterranean region to the Baltic Sea and White Sea (occurring locally at coasts of the Atlantic and North Sea), in Asia to Yakutsk (Siberia), Japan, and Korean Peninsula.
Salicornia perennans subsp. altaica (Lomon.) G. Kadereit & Piirainen, endemic to Altai Mountains (Russia, Mongolia)
Salicornia procumbens species group:
Salicornia procumbens Sm., with four subspecies:
Salicornia procumbens subsp. procumbens, widely distributed along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts from Morocco to Scandinavia, inland occurrences in Turkey and Ukraine.
Salicornia procumbens subsp. freitagii (Yaprak & Yardakulol) G. Kadereit & Piirainen, endemic to Turkey (Anatolia).
Salicornia procumbens subsp. pojarkovae (Semenova) G. Kadereit & Piirainen, coasts of the White Sea (Russia) and Barents Sea (Norway).
Salicornia procumbens subsp. heterantha (S.S. Beer & Demina) G. Kadereit & Piirainen, endemic to southeast European Russia (Rostov Oblast).
Salicornia persica Akhani, with two subspecies:
Salicornia persica subsp. persica, in Iran
Salicornia persica subsp. iranica (Akhani) G. Kadereit & Piirainen, in Iran, and probably in eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia.

In North America:[3][6]

Salicornia maritima S.L.Wolff & Jefferies, Slender glasswort, coasts of southeastern Canada, northeastern United States, southern Alaska. (proved to be genetically identical to Salicornia europaea[9])
Salicornia bigelovii Torrey, Dwarf glasswort, Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic coasts to Maine, southern California.
Salicornia rubra A.Nelson, salty inland habitats of the central United States and Canada.

In Africa:[6]

Salicornia praecox A.Chev., western Senegal
Salicornia senegalensis A.Chev., western Senegal
Salicornia perrieri A.Chev., East African coasts from Mozambique to KwaZulu-Natal, Madagascar, probably in Tanzania and Zanzibar
Salicornia pachystachya Bunge ex Ungern-Sternb., East African coasts from southern Kenya to KwaZulu-Natal, Madagascar
Salicornia meyeriana Moss, South African coasts from Vanrhynsdorp to Durban
Salicornia uniflora Toelken, southwestern Namibia (Lüderitz) and northwestern South Africa (Darling)

In South Asia:[6]

Salicornia brachiata Roxb., Umari keerai, coasts of Ceylon and from East India to Bengal.

Culinary use

Salicornia europaea is edible, either cooked or raw,[10] as are S. rubra and S. depressa.[11] In England, S. europaea is one of several plants known as samphire (see also Rock samphire); the term samphire is believed to be a corruption of the French name, [herbe de] Saint-Pierre, which means "St. Peter's herb".[12]

In Hawai'i, where it is known as sea asparagus, it is often blanched and used as a topping for salads or accompaniment for fish.[13][14]

In addition to S. europaea, the seeds of S. bigelovii yield an edible oil. S. bigelovii's edibility is compromised somewhat because it contains saponins, which are toxic under certain conditions.[10]

Umari keerai is cooked and eaten or pickled. It is also used as fodder for cattle, sheep and goats.[15] In Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka, it is used to feed donkeys.

On the east coast of Canada, the plant is known as samphire greens and is a local delicacy. In Southeast Alaska, it is known as beach asparagus. In Nova Scotia, Canada, they are known as crow's foot greens. In British Columbia, Canada, they are known as sea asparagus.[16] In the United States, they are known as sea beans when used for culinary purposes. Other names include sea green bean, sea pickle, and marsh samphire.[17]

In India, researchers at the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute developed a process to yield culinary salt from Salicornia brachiata. The resulting product is known as vegetable salt and sold under the brand name Saloni.[18]

Dehydrated, pulverized salicornia is sold under the brand name "Green Salt" as a salt substitute claimed to be as salty in taste as table salt, but with less sodium.[19][20]
Pharmacological research

In South Korea, Phyto Corporation has developed a technology of extracting low-sodium salt from Salicornia europaea, a salt-accumulating plant. The company claims the naturally-derived plant salt is effective in treating high blood pressure and fatty liver disease[21] by reducing sodium intake.[22] The company has also developed a desalted Salicornia powder containing antioxidative and antithrombus polyphenols, claimed to be effective in treating obesity and arteriosclerosis,[23] as well as providing a means to help resolve global food shortages.[24]
Industrial use
Historical
Salicornia virginica
See also: Soda ash and Barilla

The ashes of glasswort and saltwort plants and of kelp were long used as a source of soda ash (mainly sodium carbonate) for glassmaking and soapmaking. The introduction of the LeBlanc process for industrial production of soda ash superseded the use of plant sources in the first half of the 19th century.

Umari keerai is used as raw material in paper and board factories.[15]
Salicornia europaea
Contemporary
See also: Biodiesel

Because Salicornia bigelovii can be grown using saltwater and its seeds contain high levels of unsaturated oil (30 wt. %, mostly linoleic acid) and protein (35 wt. %),[25][26] it can be used to produce animal feedstuff and as a biofuel feedstock on coastal land where conventional crops cannot be grown. Adding nitrogen-based fertiliser to the seawater appears to increase the rate of growth and the eventual height of the plant,[27] and the effluent from marine aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming) is a suggested use for this purpose.[25]

Experimental fields of Salicornia have been planted in Ras al-Zawr (Saudi Arabia),[26] Eritrea (northeast Africa) and Sonora (northwest Mexico)[28] aimed at the production of biodiesel. The company responsible for the Sonora trials (Global Seawater) claims between 225 and 250 gallons of BQ-9000 biodiesel can be produced per hectare (approximately 2.5 acres) of salicornia,[29] and is promoting a $35 million scheme to create a 12,000-acre (49 km2) salicornia farm in Bahia de Kino.[30]

Stems and roots of Salicornia brachiata plants have a high cellulose content (ca. 30 wt. %), whereas tender stem tips exhibit a low cellulose content (9.2 wt. %).[31] Salicornia brachiata revealed the dominance of rhamnose, arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose, with meager presence of ribose and xylose in their structural polysaccharide.[32]
Environmental uses

Pickleweed is used in Phytoextraction, it is highly effective at removing selenium from soil, which is absorbed by the plant and then released into the atmosphere to be dispersed by prevailing winds.[33] Pickleweed (Salicornia bigelovii) has been found to have average volatilization rates 10-100 times higher than other species.[34]
See also

Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI)
Batis
Glasswort
Pickleweed

References

To French speakers of Atlantic Canada, Salicornia, Integrated Taxonomic Information System, serial number 20646.
Stace, C. A. (2019). New Flora of the British Isles (Fourth ed.). Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.: C & M Floristics. ISBN 978-1-5272-2630-2.
Ball, Peter W. (2004). "Salicornia L.," in Flora of North America: North of Mexico Volume 4: Magnoliophyta: Caryophyllidae, part 1, Editorial Committee of the Flora of North America (Oxford University Press, 2004). ISBN 978-0-19-517389-5. Online version retrieved August 10, 2016.
Kadereit, G.; Borsch, T.; Weising, K.; Freitag, H. (2003). "Phylogeny of Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae and the evolution of C4 photosynthesis". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 164 (6): 959–86. doi:10.1086/378649. S2CID 83564261.
"Flora of New Zealand | Taxon Profile | Salicornia quinqueflora". www.nzflora.info. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
Kadereit, G.; Ball, P.; Beer, S.; Mucina, L.; Sokoloff, D.; Teege, P.; Yaprak, A.E.; Freitag, H. (2007). "A taxonomic nightmare comes true: phylogeny and biogeography of glassworts (Salicornia L., Chenopodiaceae)". Taxon. 56 (4): 1143–70. doi:10.2307/25065909. JSTOR 25065909.
Carl Linnaeus (1753). Species Plantarum, Tomus I: 3. First description of Salicornia, scanned at BHL
"Salicornia". Tropicos. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
Kadereit, G.; Piirainen, M.; Lambinon, J.; Vanderpoorten, A. (2012). "Cryptic taxa should have names. Reflections on the glasswort genus Salicornia (Amaranthaceae)". Taxon. 61 (6): 1227–39. doi:10.1002/tax.616005. hdl:2268/153011.
"Salicornia", page of the Plants for a Future website. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
Nyerges, Christopher (2017). Foraging Washington: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Foods. Guilford, CT: Falcon Guides. ISBN 978-1-4930-2534-3. OCLC 965922681.
Davidson, Alan (2002). The Penguin Companion To Food (Penguin), p. 828. ISBN 978-0-14-200163-9. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Completely Revised and Updated (Scribner, New York), p. 317. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1.
"Tasting Hawai'i With Moloka'i Chef James Temple: The Other Asparagus... Sea Asparagus". tastinghawaii.com. November 10, 2013. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
"Eating Local, Hawaiian-Style: Sea Asparagus and Ahi Poke Omaraisu". spiceboxtravels.com. April 3, 2015. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
Salicornia, oil-yielding plant for coastal belts, The Hindu
http://westcoastseaweed.com/
Cook's Thesaurus: Sea Vegetables, retrieved 2012-10-08.
"Indian scientists produce salt from vegetable". The Economic Times (India). 18 May 2003.
Florence Fabricant, "To Sprinkle: Add Some Green To Your Salt Lineup", New York Times, August 11, 2021, p. D3; online version "Add Green to Your Salt Lineup" August 9, 2021
Green Salt web site, [1]
Kim, Jae Hwan; Suk, Sujin; Jang, Woo Jung; Lee, Chang Hyung; Kim, Jong-Eun; Park, Jin-Kyu; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Kim, Jong Hun; Lee, Ki Won (2017). "Salicornia Extract Ameliorates Salt-Induced Aggravation of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Obese Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet". Journal of Food Science. 82 (7): 1765–1774. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.13777. PMID 28608557.
Panth, Nisha; Park, Sin-Hee; Kim, Hyun; Kim, Deuk-Hoi; Oak, Min-Ho (2016). "Protective Effect of Salicornia europaea Extracts on High Salt Intake-Induced Vascular Dysfunction and Hypertension". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (7): 1176. doi:10.3390/ijms17071176. PMC 4964547. PMID 27455235.
Won, Kyung Jong; Lee, Kang Pa; Baek, Suji; Cui, Long; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Jung, Seung Hyo; Ryu, Yun-Kyoung; Hong, Jung Min; Cho, Eun-Ah; Shin, Hwa-Sup; Kim, Bokyung (2017). "Desalted Salicornia europaea extract attenuated vascular neointima formation by inhibiting the MAPK pathway-mediated migration and proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 94: 430–438. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2017.07.108. PMID 28778046.
Rahman, Md. Mahbubur; Kim, Myung-Jin; Kim, Jin-Hyoung; Kim, Sok-Ho; Go, Hyeon-Kyu; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Kim, Do-Hyung (2018). "Desalted Salicornia europaea powder and its active constituent, trans-ferulic acid, exert anti-obesity effects by suppressing adipogenic-related factors". Pharmaceutical Biology. 56 (1): 183–191. doi:10.1080/13880209.2018.1436073. PMC 6130585. PMID 29521146.
Glenn, Edward P.; Brown, J. Jed; O'Leary, James W. (August 1998). "Irrigating Crops with Seawater" (PDF). Scientific American. USA: Scientific American, Inc. 279 (August 1998): 76–81. Bibcode:1998SciAm.279b..76G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0898-76. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
Clark, Arthur (November–December 1994). "Samphire: From Sea to Shining Seed" (PDF). Saudi Aramco World. Saudi Aramco. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
Alsaeedi, Abdullah H. (2003). "Di Pattern of Salicornia Vegetative Growth in Relation to Fertilization" (PDF). Journal of King Faisal University. Al-Hassa: King Faisal University. 4 (1): 105–18. Retrieved 2008-11-17. "adequate fertilization increases significantly the relative growth rate especially during the 'rapid' phase of the vegetative stage"[dead link]
"USIJI Uniform Reporting Document" (PDF). United States Initiative on Joint Implementation. c. 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2008-11-17. "Project Salicornia: Halophyte Cultivation in Sonora"
Ryan C. Christiansen (2008-07-31). "Sea asparagus can be oilseed feedstock for biodiesel". Biomass Magazine. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
Dickerson, Marla (2008-07-10). "Letting the sea cultivate the land". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
Sanandiya, Naresh D.; Prasad, Kamalesh; Meena, Ramavatar; Siddhanta, Arup K. (2010-04-01). "Cellulose of Salicornia brachiata". Natural Product Communications. 5 (4): 603–606. doi:10.1177/1934578X1000500421. ISSN 1934-578X. PMID 20433080. S2CID 12588647.
Sanandiya, Naresh D; Siddhanta, A.K (2014). "Chemical studies on the polysaccharides of Salicornia brachiata". Carbohydrate Polymers. 112: 300–7. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.072. PMID 25129748.
Eichhorn, Peter H. Raven ; Ray F. Evert ; Susan E. (2011). Biology of plants (8 ed.). New York, NY: Freeman. p. 12. ISBN 9781429219617.
Terry, N; Zayed, A. M; De Souza, M. P; Tarun, A. S (2000). "Selenium Inhigherplants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 51: 401–432. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.51.1.401. PMID 15012198.